JVM, CLR, BEAM, WASM

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The major virtual machines in use: JVM (Java, Kotlin, Scala, Clojure), CLR (.NET languages), BEAM (Erlang, Elixir — optimized for concurrency), and WASM (WebAssembly — portable binary for web and edge). Each provides a distinct execution model and ecosystem.

language-implementation virtual-machines jvm clr beam wasm